PBGSN Murthy
Vignan's Foundation for Science, Technology, and Research
Deemed to be University, India
E-mail: pbgsnmurthy@gmail.com
Ch Srinivasa Rao
College of Engineering, Andhra University, India
E-mail: csr_auce@yahoo.co.in
K Venkata Rao
Vignan's Foundation for Science, Technology, and
Research Deemed to be University, India
E-mail: kvenkatrama@gmail.com
Submission: 20/03/2018
Revision: 11/04/2018
Accept: 23/04/2018
ABSTRACT
Tool condition monitoring is one of the important aspects in machining
process to improve tool life. It comprises three important steps namely machining
data acquisition, data analysis and decision making. Vibration in metal cutting
has direct impact on the tool life as well as surface roughness. The present
study focused on measurement of vibration during the machining process. Data
acquisition is made by using various types of sensors. A wide variety of
technologies like contact and non-contact sensors have been used for real time
data acquisition of tool or workpiece vibrations. Research works carried out by
many authors is highlighted in measurement of cutting tool and machine tool
vibrations using different sensors. Influence of various input parameters like
tool geometry, feed, speed and depth of cut on the magnitude of vibrations is
discussed. Influence of vibration on surface roughness, tool life and power
consumption is reviewed. Three dimensional vibration measurement with single
Laser Doppler Vibrometer is also covered for precise analysis of vibration.
Keywords: Tool condition
monitoring, tool vibration, tool life, sensors, Laser Doppler Vibrometer.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tool
Condition Monitoring (TCM) is an essential requirement in advanced
manufacturing process to monitor the performance of cutting tools. Machining
process is a complex dynamic process where the tool wear is the most
undesirable characteristic which severely affects the tool life.
Tooling cost plays a vital role
in the overall cost of production. TCM is an important area to reduce the tool
failure and machine break downtime.
Reduction of machine tool break downtime enhances productivity and
reduces production cost. Worn tool results in rough surface of work piece, dimensional
inaccuracies and also vibrations during the machining. Early replacement of a
workable tool or late replacement of a worn tool may cause low productivity and
production loss (DAVID,JOHN,2006).
Hence, it is very important to
improve the tool life and its performance by continuous monitoring. Milling,
drilling and boring processes are difficult machining processes when compared
to other machining processes. In these processes,
tool vibration induced by cutting forces influences the tool life and surface
quality of component.
Rigidity
of tool holder is one of the significant parameters that influence dynamic
stability of cutting tool. The tool holders have less rigidity in operations
like drilling, boring and milling because of their longer length. David and
John (2006) treated boring bar as a cantilever beam which is rigidly fixed to
the machine tool and its deflection is evaluated by the equation (1).
(1)
where, Fr is
radial force in Newton’s, L is boring
bar length in millimeters, E is modulus of elasticity in N/mm2
and I is area moment of inertia in mm4.
Insufficient
rigidity of tool holder and work piece during machining causes spring back and
it results in deflection of tool holder. Diameter of bored hole is reduced by
metal spring back and tool marks formed on the machined surface due to tool
vibration. David and John (2006) recommended that shifting of cutting edge
position with an amount of 0.02 to 0.04 mm reduces spring back and chatter.
Length to diameter ratio (overhang ratio
) of boring bar influences the resonant frequencies and chatter resistance.
Boring bars with more than 4overhang ratio results in chatter. Stiffness of the
tool holder can be improved by decreasing the overhang ratio or increase in
size of tool holder for the same length
of tool (VENKATARAO;
MURTHY, 2016 ).
All
bodies possessing mass and elasticity are capable to produce vibrations.
Vibrations are defined as the repetitive motion of a body relative to a
stationary frame referred to equilibrium of the vibration. Inman (2001) stated
that there is a large impact of vibrations on the surrounding environment.
Figure
1.isdepicting a schematic representation of simple one degree of freedom damped
vibrating system. A vibration that occurs due to continuous application of
external forces is known as forced vibration. Some examples under this category
are vibrations generated in machine
tools, gas turbines , IC engines , pumps
and compressors etc.,
Figure
1: Single degree of freedom system
Source: Inman (2001)
Vibration analysis is made by measuring
three parameters named as displacement, velocity and acceleration and they are
used to estimate integrity of machine tool. Sensitivity of the measuring
instrument depends on the frequency of vibrations. Low frequency vibration
signals are usually measured by amplitude sensors.
Medium and high frequency vibrations
are measured by velocity and acceleration sensors respectively. Monitoring of
Vibration signals became an important technique in machine maintenance and
quality control. Frequency of vibration signals are used to identify source of
defect and the amplitude of vibration is used to estimates intensity of the
defect.
Finally, the vibration signals are
very much useful to identify the condition of equipment or machine for further
diagnosis of the problem. In some machining process like milling, turning and
drilling etc., vibrations alters the machining characteristics such as surface
roughness, dimensional accuracy and tool life. Production cost and productivity
are also influenced by tool vibrations which are induced in machining process.
Andren et al. (2004) described
various deformation zones in machining process as primary, secondary and
tertiary zones. Primary deformation zone leads to stress and strain in the work
piece, in remaining two deformation zones, shear and normal traction loads are
applied on the tool due to friction and plastic deformation. Tool holder will
undergo vibrations due to above said loads.
Researchers have
carried out different studies on cutting tool vibration in different machining
processes and dynamic modeling of cutting tool was also carried out. Many of
the researchers have focused on optimization of cutting parameters to reduce
the tool/workpiece vibration and prediction of stability limits.
Akesson
et al. (2007) proposed three methods to improve boring bar stability to get
good surface quality as well as production rate. They
studied dynamic behavior of clamped boring bar by three methods such as
experimental modal analysis, analysis of deflected shape during operation and
the analysis of Euler–Bernoulli beam model. It was concluded that bending
motion of boring bar is more in the direction of cutting speed. A good
correlation among the results of three methods was found.
Chang (2001)
reported that the tool life and surface finish are strongly influenced by frequency and
amplitude of vibration. He concluded that the tool geometry plays an important
role in the generation of tool vibration. Luke et al.(2001) pointed that two
types of vibrations were induced during machining. They are forced and
self-excited vibrations. Forced vibrations are caused by backlash in gear
drives, inaccuracy and misalignment of machine tool parts etc. Self-excited
vibrations are caused by chatter and mutual interaction between the insufficient
rigidity of machine tool.
This leads to disturbances in
cutting zones. Tool vibrations are categorized based on driving force as
regenerative and non-regenerative. According to
Tobias (1965) regenerative chatter occurs due to undulation of surface texture
produced in the preceding passes and non-regenerative chatter is due to plastic
deformation of workpiece and friction at
tool chip interface.
The present study is
focused on effect of the process parameters on the vibration of workpiece as
well as cutting tool in different machining processes. Effect of tool vibration
on the surface roughness, cutting forces and tool wear is also discussed. A
detailed review is made on findings of different researchers in turning and
milling operations. Measurement of vibration and sensors used in the
measurement are also reviewed.
2. EFFECT OF VIBRATION IN METAL CUTTING
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of a
machined component depends on machining parameters, feed, cutting speed, depth
of cut and tool geometry. It also depends on method of machining, tool and work
piece material. In addition to them, tool vibration also plays a vital role on
the performance characteristics of machining as well as tool life. Surface
roughness is not only affected by the process parameters, but also affected by
the excess tool vibration, friction and built up edge.
Thomas and Beauchamp (2003) investigated the
influence of machining parameters, cutting speeds, feed rates, depth of cuts,
tool projected lengths from tool post, tool geometry and length of work piece
on cutting tool stiffness and damping in turning of mild steels. In addition to
that empirical model was also developed to identify the behavior of tool
stiffness variation on each parameter. They concluded that the high cutting
speeds and feed rates result in tool vibration.
Xiao
et al. (2003) investigated the effect of tool nose radius on tool vibrations
and surface finish. They suggested large tool
nose radius for the improvement of tool strength, surface finish and to reduce
vibrations. Correlation between tool vibration and tool wear in milling of AISI
D3 cold work steel was investigated by Sadettin
et al (2007).
Tool wear and tool vibration
were measured with toolmaker’s microscope and accelerometers respectively. Vibrations
were measured in the machining direction because it is more dominant than the
other two directions. Increase of tool wear results increase in the vibration
amplitude and significant amount of amplitude was found when the flank wear
exceeds 160μm.
Kourosh
and Per(2008) pointed
out that the monitoring of tool vibration is highly essential in order to
control the machining characteristics of high speed milling through online
vibration data acquisition system. For an effective measurement of tool
vibration and analysis of vibration, Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV)was
proposed.
Alonso
and Salgado (2008)
used tool vibration signals to develop a TCM system which is
reliable and faster. Experimental data of tool vibration and tool wear at
different levels of process parameters were used to develop mathematical models
for tool vibration and tool wear using artificial neural networks. In addition
to that, vibration data was also analyzed using cluster analysis and singular
spectrum analysis to predict the tool vibration.
Salgado et al.(2009) studied effect of
tool vibration on the surface roughness in turning process. They conducted
experiments at different levels of cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and tool
geometry. During the process, vibration of the tool was measured using
accelerometer and vibration signals were analyzed. Using the experimental
results, statistical models were developed for the surface roughness in terms
of the process parameters and tool vibration to predict surface roughness.
They
concluded that the nose radius is more significant parameter among the other
selected parameters on the tool vibration as well as surface roughness. Ostasevicius
et al. (2010)
identified tool vibration has more influence on the surface finish of a machined
component. Andren et al. (2004) and Miguelez et al.(2010)
investigated the dynamic characteristics of boring tool holder in boring of
steels and cast iron. Vibrations were measured in the directions of cutting
speed and depth of cut using accelerometers.
It
was found that first resonant frequency influences the vibration magnitude in
one direction. Wang and Chan (2013) studied the effect of tool-tip vibration on surface finish in ultra-precision diamond
turning. Representative
measurement method was used to measure the surfaces produced by single point
turning and observed turning marks on the work piece and spatial errors in
radial direction measurement.
3. MEASUREMENT OF TOOL AND WORKPIECE VIBRATION
This section describes various
vibration measurement methods in different machining operations. Acoustic
Emission (AE) is defined as spontaneous release of transient elastic energy in
materials undergoing deformation and fracture. AE signals were used to estimate
tool vibration in machining processes like boring, drilling, milling and
turning process. Dornfeld and Kannatey (1980) used contact type piezo-electric transducer to
measure vibration of machine tools in the form of AE signals while machining is
in progress.
Tool
life is influenced by various parameters like tool geometry, tool material and
length of tool holder etc., Tool wear is more predominantly influenced by
length of boring bar in boring process because boring bar is subjected to
vibration. Abdul and Sivakumar (1987) reported that the rubbing between tool
and work piece causes noise spectra of low frequency.
This
data was used to investigate the effect of cutting speed and tool overhang on
flank wear. They concluded the overhang length is the significant parameter on
tool wear. Roberto and Micheletti (1989) evaluated flank and crater wear using AE signals in
turning process to analyze tool wear. Tool vibrations, tool wear and surface
roughness of machining component during machining was estimated by analyzing
the induced acoustic emission signal.
Chang
and Richard (1989) used root mean square (rms) of tool vibration velocity to
evaluate tool wear at high cutting speeds of machining with ceramic tools.
Based on the rms value of AE signals, it was concluded that the base of tool
tip is the most sensitive to tool wear.
Ngoi and Venkatakrishnan(2000) investigated the influence of vibrations
in machining of micro size components machining like dimensional accuracy and
surface finish. Laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) was used to measure vibrations
in machining of micro components.
The
LDV measures vibrations in the form of acousto optic emission signals (AOE) after that theseAOE signals were
processedusing Fast Fourier transformation (FFT) to read amplitude
of tool vibration directly. Vibration
of a rotating work piece and cutting tool can be measured in terms of
amplitude, velocity and acceleration. In TCM, vibration of tool/work piece is
one of the major factors which is to be controlled.
There
are two types of sensors used to measure vibration of work piece and cutting
tools; contact and non-contact sensors. Researchers have been adopting
different kinds of technologies in measurement of vibration namely vibration sensors, touch sensors, AE sensors, power
sensors and vision sensors etc. (XIAOLI, 2002; DIMLA et al., 2000).
Prasad et al.(2010) used
a novel technique for real time process monitoring using multiple sensors
signals such as LDV and infrared thermal cameras to obtain vibrations,
temperature and tool wear measurements. Figure 2 shows measurement of vibration
of rotating workpiece with the LDV.
The LDV is placed in front of the
machine at proper position and laser beam was focused on the workpiece to
measure its vibration. This proposed TCM system was designed to evaluate the
high speed turning operation on AISI 316L steel with coated and uncoated CNMG
150608 type carbide inserts. Vibration signals were obtained using a LDV and
the vibration signals were analyzed.
Cheran
and Jia (2007) used vibration cutting to find the effect of tool vibration on
surface roughness in boring and drilling process. Shading area method was
proposed to analyze burrs in intersecting holes. They concluded burrs and holes
were reduced due to the use of high
frequency vibration boring and
ultimately improves the surface finish.
Figure 2:.Experimental test setup in central
machine shop
Source: Prasad, Sarcar and Satish (2010)
4. CONTACT TYPE SENSORS
Contact type sensors are the
devices require physical contact with the object. They measure vibration of cutting
tool, work piece and machine tools. Contact type sensors are attached to a
vibrating body to measure vibration and also to convert the mechanical
vibration magnitude into electrical signal. Electrical signal is processed into
measurable characteristics like amplitude, frequency and phase.
Accelerometers, velocity and
displacement transducers are used commonly to measure vibrations (ZAHIA et al.,
2013). Rahim et al., (2009) developed a micro
electro mechanical system accelerometer
to measure vibration of machine tool. Chih
et al., (2012) described an appropriate control of machining with the
development of a decision making methodology using signals calibration.
Singular spectrum
analysis(SSA) was used to extract and transform the raw signals of vibrations
on the cutting tool for investigating the relationship between tool vibration
and surface roughness in precision end milling of SCM440 steel. Three
accelerometers were used at a time on the tool holder of mill cutter to sense
the vibration of spindle in X, Y and Z directions. The vibration data was used
to develop a correlation between surface roughness and vibration. A
mathematical model was also developed to identify the critical parameter which
affects the vibration.
Chelladurai
et al., (2008) used two accelerometers to measure cutting tool vibrations in
two different directions. As shown in the Figure 3, two accelerometers were
fixed on tool holder in the directions of feed and cutting. They used the
vibration data along with strain data to study the tool flank wear in turning
process.
Andren
et al., (2004) studied vibrations induced in the boring bar while boring alloy
steel, stainless steel and cast iron. Vibrations were measured in both the
directions of cutting speed and depth using two accelerometers.
Ghani et al (2002) performed
machining on nodular cast iron to study the
effect of tool wear and vibration on surface finish using ceramic tools. Two
accelerometers were used to measure vibrations of cutting tool. One
accelerometer was placed in main cutting force direction and the other one was
placed in radial cutting force direction.
Figure
3: Vibration measurement using accelerometers
Source: Chelladurai, Jain, and Vyas (2008)
Sivasakthivel et al., (2011)
also used two accelerometers to measure acceleration and amplitude of spindle
and work piece vibrations while machining aluminum A16063 with HSS end mill
cutter. As shown in the Figure 4, one accelerometer was kept on work holder and
the other one was placed on spindle to measure vibrations in feed as well as
axial cutting directions respectively.
A mathematical model was
developed with cutting parameters such as helix angle, feed rate, spindle speed
and depth of cut. This mathematical model was used to develop a relation
between end mill cutter vibration and cutting parameters. They found that the
helix angle has more influence on the amplitude of acceleration and at 450of
helix angle, the vibration amplitude was found to be minimum.
Accelerometers are
widely used instruments to measure acceleration of tool and work piece in
contact type sensors category. Dynamic characteristics are evaluated by
analyzing acceleration and excited load signals using various digital signal
processing techniques. There are several difficulties and disadvantages found with
contact type sensors in vibration measurement.
It is difficult to
measure vibrations of rotating bodies like work piece in turning operation (both external and internal), tools like drill bits, milling cutters and grinding wheel etc. Some of the disadvantages mentioned by Dongkyu Kim et al., (2013) are loading effect on frequency response in case of light and
flexible structures, tethering problem in measurement and sensitivity to
electromagnetic interference effects. To overcome
these difficulties, non-contact type sensor measuring devices are
preferred.
Figure
4: Experimental setup for vibration amplitude measurement
Source: Sivasakthivel, Velmurugan and
Sudhakaran (2011)
5. NON-CONTACT SENSORS- LASER DOPPLER VIBROMETER
Vibration measurement of moving elements such as gears, shafts,
pulleys, cutting tools in drilling and milling machine are difficult with
contact type sensors. Low magnitude of rotor vibrations measurement is also difficult
with contact type sensors. According to Bell and Rothberg (2000) measurement of
rotating elements, hot and light components is easy and simple by noncontact
sensors. In
these cases, vibration measurement can be carried by non-contact type sensor
like Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV) (EWINS,1984; VENKATRAO et al., 2013; BALAJI
et al., 2018).
In early days, LDV was used to measure turbine blade vibrations. LDV consists of three measuring
scan heads which are capable of measuring the movements in the three orthogonal
directions to obtain full information of the three dimensional movements. The
LDV works on the principle of Doppler effect and interferometry for vibration
measurement.
The
LDV system software controls the entire measurement process with graphical user
interface. LDVs can measure vibrations up to 30 MHz range with very linear
phase response and high accuracy. Based on laser
Doppler principle, two types of instruments exist to measure vibrations. They
are Continuous Scanning LDV (CSLDV)
and Tracking LDV (TLDV).
5.1.
Working
principle of Laser Doppler Vibrometer
Figure 5: Typical components of a Laser Doppler
Vibrometer
Source: Venkatarao (2014)
A
laser beam produced by the LDV is focused on a vibrating surface and it is
reflected from the vibrating surface. Doppler shift of the reflected laser beam
frequency is used to find out frequency and amplitude of the vibrating target.
Output The LDV is continuous analog voltage and it is directly proportional to
the velocity of vibrating target. LDV device is mainly operated with
Helium-neon lasers.
Laser
beam which is focused on target i.e., vibrating surface is initially spited
into reference beam and test beams by beam splitter 1 with the initial
frequency of (fo) shown in Figure 5. Reference beam moves vertically
towards mirror and reflected towards beam splitter3 and then to photo detector
(VENKATRAO, 2014). Test beam passes through the Bragg cell where frequency
shift (fb) is added to the target beam. This beam targets the
vibrating body (Target) with a frequency (fo + fb). The motion of the
vibrating body (target) adds a Doppler shift to the beam and its magnitude is
given below:
(2)
Where v(t) is the velocity of
the target,
ais the angle between velocity and vector laser beam, and
λ is the wavelength of the laser beam.
Vibrating target scatters the
light and part of the scattered light reflects back to the beam splitter 2 and
directed to beam splitter 3and then reflected towards photo detector. Frequency
of this beam is equal to (fo +
fb + fd).
This reflected scattered light is combined with reference beam at
photo-detector. The output signal which is obtained at Photo detector is
converted into frequency modulated (FM) signal. FM signal is demodulated
to obtain velocity vs. time of the vibrating target.
5.2.
Measurement
of vibration with LDV
Prasad
et al. (2010) developed
an online tool condition monitoring system for face milling operation to
monitor effects of tool/workpiece displacement caused by vibration. A
relationship between process parameters and the tool vibration, tool wear and
surface roughness was developed. Vibration data of rotating tool and work piece
is collected with different sensors and transferred to a computer through a
data acquisition system in LDV assisted vibration measuring method.
Figure 6 shows the measurement
of rotating mill cutter vibration by focusing laser beam on the tool. Data
acquisition system comprises of a LDV, a highly accurate and versatile
non-contact vibration transducer for measuring the vibrations during machining
(VENKATRAO, 2014). The output signal of the LDV serves as an input for FFT
analyzer where signal analysis is done.
Figure
6 :Measurement of rotating work piece vibration using LDV
Source: Venkatarao,
Murthy and Mohanrao (2014)
Figure
7: Time and frequency domain spectrographs
Source: Venkatarao,
Murthy and Mohanrao (2014)
During the machining, amplitude of work piece vibration is
measured with LDV (BELL et al., 2000; VENKATRAO et al., 2014; ROBERTO et al.,
2000; CASTELLINI et al., 2000). As shown
in the figure 7, vibration data is collected from the LDV in the form of time
domain spectrograph. It is difficult to identify maximum amplitude of work
piece or tool vibration from the time domain spectrograph, so the time domain
spectrograph is converted into the frequency domain spectrograph using FFT
analyzer to identify the amount of amplitude easily.
6. THREE DIMENSIONAL VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Dongkyu Kim and Kyihwan Park
(2013) have designed a pseudo 3D Laser Scanning Vibrometer (LSV) to measure
vibration of a surface in three directions at a time. In this system, a light
detection and ranging (LIDAR) device combined with the LSV along with an
optical filter is used. This system produces three laser beams at a time to
measure vibration of a surface in three directions. But it involves more
investment on the equipment.
6.1.
3D
Vibration measurement with single LDV
It
is possible to measure vibration of a surface in three dimensions with a single
LDV. It reduces extra investment on 3D LDV. Dongkyu Kim et al (2014) have
developed a technology to achieve three dimensional vibration measurement with
one LDV. In this technique three dimensional vibration measurement is made by
moving the LDV in three different locations.
Figure
8: Vibration measurement at arbitrary point on object from three different
locations
Source: Dongkyu, Hajun, Hossam, Jongsuh, Semyung and Kyihwan (2014)
Figure 8 shows different
measurement locations to measure vibration of an object at one point OL.
That point is defined as origin of local coordinate system (XL, YL,
ZL) of the object. V1, V2and V3 are
the measured vibration of the object at A, B and C locations respectively.
Position A is defined with respect to the local coordinate system as follows:
---------------- (3)
where
ax, ay, and az are coordinates of A and ix,
iy and iz are unit vectors on the local coordinate
system. A position with respect to a general coordinate system is defined as
follows:
----------------- (4)
Components of A with
respect to general coordinate system are found through the dot product of the
two point vectors as follows:
------------------- (5)
= -------------- (6)
The
equation (6) is a relationship that expresses how the components of position of
point vector A in local coordinate system relate to the same components of the
same point vector in a general coordinate system. Then,
= -------------------- (7)
In
the above, represents angle between X axis of local and
general coordinate systems in X direction, is the angle between X axis of local and
general coordinate systems in Y direction and is the angle between X axis of local and
general coordinate systems in Z direction. Similarly angle of each axis is
defined with respect to general coordinate systems of measuring locations at B
and C. if V1, V2 and V3are the vibrations
measured at measuring locations A, B and C respectively. Vibration of the
object in X, Y and Z directions can be obtained using the above angles and the
equation (6) as follows (DAVID et al., 2009):
= ------------ (8)
7. CONCLUSION
Vibration
is one of the important factor that plays a vital role on the performance of
cutting tool as well as tool life, surface quality of finished component and
power consumption. Hence, it is essential to measure vibration of tool or
workpiece. In TCM, contact and non-contact sensors are used for online
acquisition of vibration data. Working and setup of contact and non-contact
sensors was discussed. From this paper, the following points can be drawn for
the discussion:
·
Contact
sensors are used for measurement of vibration of fixed body like tool holder in
turning and work pieces in milling process.
·
Vibration
of rotating bodies like work pieces in turning, mill cutters and drill bits
cannot be measured with contact sensors, because of the fact that the contact
sensors cannot be fixed on rotating bodies.
·
Time
and frequency domain are more advantageous to identify maximum amplitude of
vibration of a rotating body.
·
Use
of non-contact sensors like Laser Doppler Vibrometers is easy and simple to
measure vibration of any rotating/moving body.
·
Set
up of LDV is easy and very simple when compared with set up of contact sensors.
·
Among
the methods available for measurement of vibration, LDV promises to be accurate
and speedy in operation. Although not many works have been conducted using LDV,
hence there is ample scope for this non-contact technique studies.,
·
3 D
vibration measurement was introduced by measuring vibration of an object with
single LDV at 3 different locations by moving the LDV.
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