Michael S. Mangula,
Mzumbe University, Tanzania
E-mail: msmangula@mzumbe.ac.tz
Joseph A. Kuzilwa
Mzumbe University, Tanzania
E-mail: jakuzilwa@mzumbe.ac.tz
Simon S. Msanjila
Mzumbe University, Tanzania
E-mail: simon.msanjila@gmail.com
Isack Legonda,
University of Dar es Salaam
E-mail: legondaia@gmail.com
Submission: 14/03/2018
Accept: 16/03/2018
ABSTRACT
Energy
access plays a crucial role in enhancing
the social-economic development among the
household members in any nation. Notwithstanding the role of energy access in
improving the livelihood of people, provision of energy access has revealed to
be a major problem in rural areas of
Tanzania. The increased in problem of energy access in rural areas of Tanzania
is due to the absence of a unified set of
indicators for measuring its energy access in order to improve the livelihood
and standard of living of rural hoseholds. In order to fill this knowledge gap,
this paper focused on determining the
indicators of energy access in rural areas of Tanzania.
The
study employed Cross- sectional survey type of the research design to collect
data from 384 heads of household from the rural areas of Njombe and Iringa
regions in Tanzania. Quantitative Exploratory Factor Analysis using Principal
Component analysis and varimax method was employed to determine the indicators
of energy access. The identified indicators using exploratory Factor Analysis
was further confirmed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis(CFA). The study
findings revealed that, the indicators for measuring the provision of energy
access to rural households in developing countries including Tanzania ranked
based on its importance are: availability, affordability, durability,
efficient, no production of smokes, easy to use and ability to keep cooking
facilities clean.
Based
on these findings, the study concludes that, indicators of energy access are
important in enhancing the social economic development and improvement of the
livelihood of people in rural areas. In the light of this conclusion the study
recommends the government, policy makers, energy experts and other
practitioners to make use of the identified indictors when measuring energy
access to rural households in Tanzania in order to improve their livelihood and
standard of living
Keywords: Energy
access, energy sector, energy indicators, rural areas, households, Tanzania
1. INTRODUCTION
Improvement of livelihood of
people depends on the provision of energy access which is reliable, available
and affordable. Rural households use energy such as electricity, firewood,
charcoal or Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) for various activities such as
cooking, lighting, transport, agriculture and industries. The use of these
energy sources contribute in improving the social economic development of rural
households in the developing nations including Tanzania.
Notwithstanding the important role of energy access, yet
the problem of energy has emerged to the major challenges in the rural part of
the developing countries. Statistics indicate that about 1.3 billion of the world
populations do not have access to electricity while about 2.7 billion people of
the world population do not have access
to modern cooking facilities or fuel (BHATTACHARYYA, 2015).
Consistent to that, the reports from Mainali (2014) and IEA (2012) also
evidence the presence of devastating
challenge of ensuring the provision of reliable and clean energy for cooking
and lighting to 2.8 billion people and
electricity to more than 1.2 billion people in the world.
Apart from the energy access being a
global challenge, the study by Mainali (2014) insisted that the problem of energy access more serious in
rural areas where by more than seventy percent of rural households are being
confronted the energy access problem.
Additionally , the study by Mwakapugi, Waheeda and Smith (2010) on Tanzania energy
sector indicates that more than 95% of households in rural areas of Tanzania do
not have access to energy despite the fact that the country is endowed
with different forms of energy such as biomass, natural gas, hydro, coal,
geothermal, solar and wind energy.
Equally, the study by IEA(2013) added that
more than 37 million Tanzanians population not have access to electricity and modern cooking, heating and
lighting facilities. Consequently, large part of rural households relies on the
traditional and un-sustainable source of energy such as firewood and charcoals
which have in turn, they cause problem to human health and environment.
The problem of energy access in the rural areas of the
developing nation including Tanzania is due to the absence of indicators to
clarify and make the aggregate information available for various energy access
actors such as policy makers, government and energy experts for decision making
on energy access issues and ensure provision of energy access for social
economic development.
Consistent to that, Bhattacharyya (2016) insisted that the
problem of energy access in rural areas of the developing countries is being exacerbated due to the absence of a unified set of indicators for measuring energy
access. Equally, the study by Mainali (2014) revealed that absence or missing
of the mechanism or indicators of energy access contribute to the problem of
energy access in rural areas.
Additionally, study by Mensah, Kemausuor and Brew-Hammond (2014) on energy access indicators
trends In Ghana also added that among the
unanswered questions include; how can the energy access be assessed using the
set of energy access indicators. Various academia and practitioners such as
Mainali (2014), Pachauri (2011), Bhattacharyya (2012), Mensah, Kemausuor and Brew-Hammond (2014) and IEA (2016) conducted studies
on energy access issues. However, no such study on indicators of energy access
has been conducted in rural areas of Tanzania. Consequently, the indicators of
energy access in rural areas of the developing countries including are not
known and thus, energy access is measured on ad-hoc basis. This study aims at
identifying the indicators of energy access in rural areas of Tanzania
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
The study employed a cross sectional survey type of research
design with structured questionnaire as a survey instrument to collect primary
data from 384 heads of household residing in rural areas of Njombe and Iringa
regions in Tanzania. The rural households from Njombe and Iringa regions were
sampled using Multistage Cluster Sampling and thereafter simple random sampling
was employed to sample rural housholds from Njombe and Iringa regions in
Tanzania. Based on the employed sampling techniques, the sample size comprised
of 130(33.86%)respondents from Mufindi district, 139(36.19%)respondents from
Njombe district, 62(16.15%) from Iringa District and 53(13.80%)respondents were from Makambako
Town council making a total of 384
respondents.
The study employed quantitative Exploratory Factor Analysis
using Principal Component analysis as an extraction method and varimax as rotation method to determine the indicators
of energy access in rural areas of Tanzania. The identified factors using
Exploratory Factors analysis were confirmed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis
(CFA) under Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The subsequent sections provide
the study findings on the indicators of energy access in rural areas of
Tanzania.
3. STUDY FINDINGS
3.1.
Indicators
of energy access in rural areas of Tanzania
This section sought to determine the indicators of energy
access using Confirmatory Factor analysis. The study used nine (9) constructs
namely affordability, efficient, availability, easy to use, economical,
convenience does not produce smoke, durability and keeping the cooking pot
clean.
Respondents were required to indicate their extent of
agreement or disagreement on these indicators of energy access from the
questionnaire measured using Five likert
scale of 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 Neutral, 4 = Agree, and 5 =
Strongly Disagree. The descriptive analysis results on the indicators of energy
access are depicted in Table 1.
Table 1: Descriptive results on the
indicators of energy access in rural areas
Indicator of Energy access
|
Frequency |
Mean |
Convenience |
384 |
3.63 |
Keep the cooking pot clean |
384 |
4.24 |
Does not produce smoke |
384 |
4.32 |
Economical |
384 |
4.39 |
Durability) |
384 |
4.42 |
Efficient |
384 |
4.46 |
Affordability |
384 |
4.53 |
Easy to use |
384 |
4.58 |
Availability |
384 |
4.61 |
The descriptive study results
from Table 1 show that the indicators of energy access in rural areas ranked
according to their importance are: availability, easy to use, affordability,
efficient, durability, economical, does not produce smoke, the ability to keep
the cooking pots clean, and convenience.
Exploratory Factor Analysis using Principal Component analysis (PCA) with
Varimax was performed to determine indicators for measuring energy access in
rural areas of Tanzania. The extracted
loading values for each factor are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Loading values for each
indicator of energy access extracted using Principal Components Analysis Method
Indicators
of energy access in rural areas |
Loadings
Factors() |
Affordability |
0.63 |
Efficient |
0.68 |
Availability |
0.72 |
Easy to use |
0.55 |
Economical |
0.51 |
Convenience |
0.16 |
Do not produce smokes |
0.66 |
Durability |
0.74 |
Keep the cooking pot clean |
0.83 |
The study results from Table 2,
show that eight indicators out of nine have the loading factor values () greater than the minimum recommended value of 0.30(>0.30). These indicators can be expressed in order of
importance as: keeping the cooking pot clean, durability, availability,
efficient, do not produce smoke, affordability, easy to use and economical.
Thereafter these indicators were rotated using Varimax method whereby only
indicators with Eigen-value greater than one were retained. The description on how variances of these
components have been explained by nine indicators is as presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Total variance explained by the
indicators of energy access in rural areas
Component |
Initial Eigen
Value |
Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings |
Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings |
||||||
Total |
% Var |
Cum % |
Total |
% Var |
Cum% |
Total |
% Var |
Cum% |
|
1 |
3.98 |
44.21 |
44.21 |
3.98 |
44.21 |
44.21 |
3.16 |
35.06 |
35.06 |
2 |
1.44 |
16.03 |
60.25 |
1.44 |
16.03 |
60.25 |
2.27 |
25.19 |
60.25 |
3 |
0.95 |
10.60 |
70.85 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 |
0.70 |
7.77 |
78.62 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
5 |
0.58 |
6.44 |
85.06 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
6 |
0.45 |
4.94 |
90.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
7 |
0.38 |
4.18 |
94.18 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
8 |
0.33 |
3.67 |
97.85 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
9 |
0.19 |
2.15 |
100.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
The study results from Table 3 depict
that two components of indicators of energy were established after rotation of
the factors. The study showed that the
first factor accounted for 35.06% of the variance and the second factor
accounted for 25.19 % of the variance. These study findings imply that 60.25 %
of the variance is accounted for by the first two factors, while the remaining
39.75% of the variance is accounted for by other factors. Based on the study
findings, the study propose the two categories of indicators named as Techno-economic
and financial indicators of energy access as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Rotated Components Matrix of
the indicators of energy access in rural areas
Indicators of energy access in
rural areas |
Factor
loadings |
Proposed name of the indicators |
|
1 |
2 |
||
Keeping the cooking
pot clean |
0.909** |
|
Techno-economic Indicator |
Last
longer(Durability) |
0.848** |
||
Does not produce
smoke |
0.805** |
||
Economical |
0.630** |
0.332 |
Financial indicator |
Always available |
|
0.856** |
|
Cheap/affordable |
|
0.787** |
|
Easy to use |
|
0.714** |
|
Efficient |
0.469 |
0.642** |
|
**
= Highly correlated and accepted loading factor. |
In Table 4, the study findings
show that the indicators of energy acces in rural areas of Tanzania under
Techno-economic category are keeping the cooking pot clean, durability, “does
not produce smokes” and “economic indicators. Besides, the study findings
depict that the indicators of energy access under the category of financial are
availability, affordability, easy to use and efficient.
The identified indictors using
Exploratory Factor Analysis were subjected into Structural Equation Modelling
through Confirmatory Factor Analysis for confirmation purposes. Confirmatory
Factor Analysis was performed by the aid of AMOS software version 18. The
confirmatory Factor Analysis results are as presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Confirmatory Factor
Analysis on indicators of energy access in RURAL areas of Tanzania
The study results from Figure 1 show that all indicators
under tecno-economic have loading factor values greater tha the minimum
recommended value of 0.30. Additioally, the study findings from Figure 1
indicate that four indicators out five under financial cateogory have loading factor values greater
than the minimum recommmended value of 0.30.
Consistent
to that, the study findings from Figure 1 show that 55% of the variance in financial
aspects of energy access in rural areas is explained by the indicator named
availability, 47% being explained an indicator named affordability, while 44%
and 54% of the variances in financial
indicator of energy access in rural areas is
explained by indicators named easy to use and efficient respectively.
Equally, the study findings in
Figure 1 depict that about 75% of the variance in techno-economic aspects of energy access in rural areas is explained by indicator
named durability while 34% of its variance is explained by an indicator called economic. Furthermore,
the study findings confirm that, about
78% and 55% of variance in the techno-economic indicator of energy access are
explained by indicators named keep the
cooking pot clean and does not produce smoke respectively.
4. DISCUSSION OF
STUDY FINDINGS
The study findings imply that the
identified indicators of energy access are important when measuring the energy
access in rural, areas for social economic development and livelihood
improvement. For example, the observed high rank of affordability and
availability indicators by majority of rural households in Tanzania indicates
these indicators plays important role in improving their livelihood and
standards of living.
To them, affordability implies the
purchasing ability of the heads of household in acquiring the required energy
sources such as firewood, electricity, gas or charcoals. The rural households
argued that the price to purchase solar power as a source of energy for
lighting or installation costs for electricity should cheaper enough for the
household members with a low level of income to afford it. Regarding the
availability as indicators of energy access, rural households explained that,
in order for any energy source to be accessible it must be available in the
first place at the time when it is needed.
Additionally, the rural households
claimed that availability as an indicator of energy access must focus at ensuring
that energy facility should be placed in the same geographical location they
dwell. To insist on availability as indicators of energy access, rural
households pointed out that shops for selling electricity, gases should be near
to their place of domicile and they should be available all the time as well.
Energy access being available was
found to reduce the cost regarding money and time to seek for services from far
distances. Apart from availability and affordability, the households in
Tanzania indicated that variables such as reliability, durability, easiness to
use, and do not produce smoke are also important indicators of energy access in
rural areas.
Regarding reliability, rural
households insisted that they need to be supplied with energy system or energy
source which is capable of performing its intended tasks without or at minimum
failure. Being reliable, the efficiency of the system will be enhanced and the
same time its cost is also saved.
Regarding durability, respondents
required the energy sources such as solar panel, solar batter or gases to be
used for a long time before they fail or break down. Thus, durability as an
indicator of energy access helps in reducing the operating costs such as
maintenance costs.
Additionally, durability reduces the
percentage of income to be spent in purchasing the modern cooking facilities or
electricity. Regarding easy to use as an indicator of energy access, rural
households expressed their views that the energy system like gases or electric
devices should be made with simple technology such that even those people with
low level of education can use without any problem. It was revealed that being
easy to use as an indicator of energy access can reduce problems to the users
such as accident or losses of energy.
The study further points out that
energy access should be clean in such a way that they should keep the cooking
pot clean after use. It was further insisted by the household members that the
energy sources for cooking or lighting should not produce smoke so as to reduce
the health damages to the users.
Some of the findings on indicators
of energy access have also been reported by other previous studies while others
are not. Examples of other studies having similar findings include that of Sudhakara
(2015) on access to modern energy service which showed that energy access is
measurable indicators such as availability, affordability as well reliability.
Similarly, the study done by Mensah,
Kemausuor and Brew-Hammond (2014) on energy access trends
in Ghana reported similar findings that affordability is an important indicator
of energy access and it has a direct link with improved in the level of income.
Thus, being able to afford to purchase the modern source of energy contributes
to the improvement of the standard of living of rural household members.
Mensah, Kemausuor and Brew-Hammond (2014) added that affordability of
energy access helps household members start engaging in various small business
activities like charging of mobile phones, welding activities which
consequently would increase their level of income. Equally, the findings of the
present study are also in line with the study done by Coelho and Goldemberg (2013) on energy access, a lesson from
Brazil and perspectives for replication in other developing countries which
showed that social, economic development can be realised through the provision
of energy which is affordable and available.
Interestingly, some of the findings of the current study are
not reflected in the previous studies. While other studies focused much on
availability, affordability and reliability indicators in measuring energy
access, the current study has added on the body of knowledge other indicators
such as easy to use, last longer, do not produces smoke and the ability to keep
the cooking pot clean.
These rather contradictory results
may due to several reasons. Firstly, majority of other studies focused on urban
areas leaving the rural areas uncovered. Secondly, other previous studies
covered only electricity in assessing energy access leaving the cooking and
lighting facilities such as firewood and charcoal un-covered.
5. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY
Based on the study findings, the
current study conclude that indicators of energy access namely: availability, affordability, easiness to use,
efficient, durability, keep the cooking facilities clean, reliability and
cleanliness are important in enhancing social economic development and
improvement of livelihood of rural households in Tanzania.
Therefore, energy experts,
government, energy agencies, policy makers and other stakeholders should make
use of these indicators in order to establish plan, strategies and program for
ensuring provision of energy access to rural households for the purpose of
improving the livelihood and standards of living of people in rural areas of
Tanzania.
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