Michael S. Mangula
Mzumbe University, Tanzania
E-mail: msmangula@mzumbe.ac.tz
Joseph A. Kuzilwa
Mzumbe University, Tanzania
E-mail: jakuzilwa@mzumbe.ac.tz
Simon S. Msanjila
Mzumbe University, Tanzania
E-mail: simon.msanjila@gmail.com
Isack
Legonda
University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
E-mail: legondaia@gmail.com
Submission: 06/09/2018
Revision: 15/09/2018
Accept: 21/11/2018
ABSTRACT
Continued
use of traditional sources of energy for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania is
associated with human health problems such as lung diseases and environmental
problems including soil erosion and air pollution. This paper aimed at
determining the types of energy sources used for cooking and the determinants
of their choices in rural areas of Tanzania. Cross-sectional survey research design
through questionnaires was used to collect data from 384 heads of households
from rural areas of Njombe and Iringa regions in Tanzania. Multistage cluster
sampling technique was employed to sample districts, wards and villages, while
rural heads of households were sampled randomly using the fishbowl method to
avoid biasness. Descriptive analysis such as frequencies and percentages were
used while Multinomial Logistic Regression (MLR) technique was used to analyze
factors determining choices of energy sources for cooking purposes. The study
show that firewood is the main source of energy used for cooking in rural areas
of Tanzania, followed by charcoal, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and
electricity. The study also shows that
education, household size, occupation, income, and age of respondents determine
the choices of energy sources for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania. The study
concludes that, apart from improving rural household income, other intervention
such as family planning, reforestation programmers and promotion of the use of
modern cooking stoves should be done to ensure provision of sustainable energy
sources in rural areas of Tanzania.
Keywords: energy
sources; energy choices; rural households, rural areas, Tanzania
1. INTRODUCTION
Majority
of people living in rural areas of the developing countries including Tanzania
have less access to modern, clean and sustainable sources of energy for cooking
purposes. For more than a decade, the
world has experienced large proportional of people who continue relying on
traditional and unsustainable sources of energy such as firewood, charcoal,
animal and plants remain as the major sources of energy for cooking purposes
(FRANSIS, 2014).
The
studies by MWAKAPUGI (2010) and that of SWAI (2014) show that more than 85% of
people living in rural areas of Tanzania rely on traditional, unclean and
unsustainable sources of energy for cooking or lighting purposes. Moreover, the
study by KUSEKWA (2011) adds that, the traditional part of the economy, mainly
rural households in Tanzania depend on charcoal and firewood as the main
sources of energy for cooking.
The
Household Budget Survey (URT, 2012) similarly indicates that, with an
exception Dar es Salaam region, the
remaining rural part of other regions in Tanzania do not have access to modern
cooking facilities. The IEA (2006) report
show that the rate of using traditional and unsustainable sources of
energy for cooking purposes in rural areas of developing countries including
Tanzania expects to increase up to 2.7 billion people in year 2030 if no any intervention
is taken into consideration.
The
study by MAINALI (2014) shows that prolonged use of traditional, unclean and
unsustainable sources of energy for cooking or lighting purposes causes health
problems such as lung diseases and environmental problems such as air
pollution, soil erosion, and global warming.
The
increased use of traditional sources of energy in rural areas of Tanzania is
due to the absence of sufficient choice in assessing adequate, affordable,
reliable, quality, safe and environmentally friendly sources of energy. As
among the intervention to the challenge of using traditional sources of energy
in rural areas of the developing countries, various efforts and initiatives have been undertaken locally and globally so
as to change the people’s behaviors of relying on a traditional source of
energy.
The
studies MALLA and TIMILSINA (2014) evidence that United Nation (UN), World Health
Organizations (WHO) and the World Bank are among the prominent organizations
which been making recommendable effort to address the challenges on the current trends of prolonged use of
traditional sources both in rural areas of the developing countries. Majority
of the efforts made by World Health Organizations and World Bank emphasize
that, rural households should ensure they adopt and use modern and sustainable
sources of energy in order to improve their social and economic development.
On
one hand, sustainable energy for all (SE4ALL) campaign launched by the United Nation in 2010 aimed at
ensuring that there is a universal provision of clean, safe as well as modern
cooking facilities in rural areas of the developing nations. On the other hand,
organization such as ‘Africa Clean Cooking Energy Solutions’ was established in
order to promote the use of modern
cooking facilities, while ‘East Asia and Pacific region’s Clean Stove
Initiative’ (CSI) scaled up access to modern cooking facilities to rural areas
of the developing countries (WORLD BANK, 2013).
Despite
all the foregoing efforts made to address the challenges of using traditional
sources of energy for cooking, rural population in the developing countries
still rely on traditional, inefficient and unsustainable energy sources. In
this case, it suffices to notice that most of the efforts have not yielded
desirable results. Therefore what determine the choice of particular source of
energy for cooking or lighting is not known both in theory and practices as far
as rural areas in Tanzania is concerned (KICHONGE ET AL., 2014)
Studies
have been conducted from both developed and developing nations in an attempt to
explain energy sources choices by households using Energy Ladder Theory
(JOHANNA; LEONARD, 2017). The Energy Ladder establishes that households with
low level of income prefer to use traditional sources of energy such as
firewood or charcoal for cooking purposes.
However,
the theory states that households will only shift the ladder from traditional
to modern sources of energy as their level of income improves. Apart from
Income, the study by BELLO (2010) found that households’ level of income,
social and environmental factors determine the choices of energy sources.
Additionally, the study by FRNSIS and GEMMA (2014) indicates that, consumption
expenditure welfare, area of residence, household size, personal preferences,
education level, occupation, existence of internal cooking facilities and
geographical location determine the choices of energy sources for cooking.
Moreover, Studies have shown that household size, age, sex level of education and
the household income influence constitute the factors triggering an individual
to respond to energy ladder model (JUSTINE; GEORGE, 2013; PAUL; EDWARD;
HAMDIYAH, 2013; NNAJI; UKWUEZE; CHUKWU, 2012).
However,
the use energy ladder theory has been challenged because of its failure to
consider other factors such social, cultural family differences as well
personal preferences in choosing sources of energy for cooking (YONEMITSU,
2015).
Although
studies have shown that several factors determine the choices of energy sources
in rural areas including levels of household’s income, little is known
regarding the factors determining the choices of energy sources for cooking in
rural areas of Tanzania. This study, therefore, attempted to fill this
knowledge gap by determining the types of energy sources and the factors
determining the choices of energy sources for cooking in rural areas of
Tanzania.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
This
study employed a cross-sectional survey research design with a structured
questionnaire as a survey instrument to collect primary data from 384 heads of
households from rural areas of Njombe and Iringa regions in Tanzania.
Multistage cluster sampling technique was employed to select districts, wards
and villages from study areas.
Households
in rural areas of Njombe and Iringa Regions were sampled randomly using
fish-bowl method to avoid biases and also to ensure the principle of randomness
in the parameter estimate of energy source choice model holds true. Considering
the sampling techniques employed, the sample size used in this study comprises
of 130 (33.86%) respondents from Mufindi district, 139 (36.19%) respondents
from Njombe district, 62 (16.15%) from Iringa District and 53 (13.80%)
respondents were from Makambako Town council making a total of 384 respondents.
Collected data were analyzed descriptively using frequencies and table.
Multinomial Logistic Regression (MLR) Model was employed was employed to
identify factors determining the choices of energy sources for cooking in rural
areas of Tanzania
MLR
analysis technique is used if the dependent variables are measured at the
nominal level and there is more than one independent variable which is
continuous, ordinal or nominal level. Using MLR analysis technique in this
study is also supported by HOSMER and LEMOSHOW (2000) who established that MLR
is used when the dependent variable is nominal for which the number of
categories is more than two and one or more continuous level (interval or ratio
scale) independent variables.
In
this study, the dependent variable is the energy source choices which are
nominal having four categories named electricity, charcoal, firewood and
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) of which electricity is used as a reference
category. The independent variables in this study are education level, age,
average monthly income, occupation, household size and marital status of
respondents which are either continuous, ordinal or even nominal one.
In
using the MLR, a household has a set of alternatives source “i” of energy
choice from which household members may choose for cooking or lighting. These
energy source choices alternatives vary among the household dwelling in rural
areas depending on various assumed factors “j” such as education level age,
marital status, occupation, average monthly income, and the household of the
respondents. MLR assumes that, household chooses energy sources that maximize
their utility as expressed mathematically herein:
, (3.1)
Where:
= is the probability of choosing firewood, charcoal, or gas
with electricity being considered as the reference category in the present
study: “ j” is the number of energy source choice in the choice set, “j=0” is
the reference category namely electricity. “” Is the vector is a vector of the predictor (exogenous)
household factor (variable). On the other hand, “” Is a vector of the estimated parameter of the variables.
When the MLM above is re-arranged using algebraic express, it follows in
equation 3.2 that
(3.2)
The
equation which has been used in estimating the coefficient of the research
variables is as presented in equation 3.3
. (3.3)
The
MLR used in the present study is estimated using the maximum likelihood method.
On the one hand, a positive estimated coefficient implies an increase in the
likelihood that a household-dwelling in rural areas will choose a particular
source of energy. On the other hand, a negative estimated coefficient indicates
that there is less likelihood a household will choose that particular source
energy given the available alternatives.
In this study, MLR is considered as an appropriate analysis method
because it does not assume normality, linearity and homoscedasticity (STARK,
2011). The use of MLR is also more appropriate if a study uses more than three
choices in the model. This study used four choices namely electricity,
firewood, LPG and charcoal
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This
section provides the results and discussions on the energy sources, and the
factors determining the choices of energy sources used for cooking in rural
areas of Tanzania.
3.1.
Energy
Sources used for Cooking in Rural Areas of Tanzania
In
determining the types of energy sources for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania,
four energy sources named electricity, firewood, charcoal and LPG were used.
Respondents were requested to choose the type (s) of energy source they use for
cooking given the available alternative. The study findings on the types of
energy sources for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania are presented in Table 1.
Types of Energy sources for cooking in rural areas
of Tanzania |
Frequency (N ) |
Percentage (%) |
Electricity |
07 |
01.80 |
Charcoal |
47 |
12.20 |
Firewood |
289 |
75.30 |
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) |
41 |
10.70 |
Total |
384 |
100.00 |
In Table 1, the results show that
firewood is used as the main source of energy for cooking by the majority
(75.30%) of people living in rural areas of Tanzania followed by charcoal
(12.20%). Other sources of energy used in rural areas of Tanzania for cooking
purposes include Liquefied Petroleum Gas (10.70%) and electricity (01.80%).
These
results indicate that people living in rural areas of Tanzania use varieties of
energy sources such as firewood, charcoal, electricity and LPG for cooking
purposes. More importantly, the results in this study demonstrate that firewood
is the dominating source of energy used for cooking by the majority of people
in rural areas of Njombe and Iringa regions followed by charcoal, gas and
electricity.
The
increased use of firewood as a source of energy for cooking in rural areas of
Tanzania is influenced not only by its availability of forest in rural areas,
rather the prevalence of poverty among rural households and thus they cannot
afford to procure modern sources of energy such as electricity and LPG which
are very expensive.
The
results in this study correspond with ABDULLAHI (2017) who found that continued
use of solid fuels such as firewood by people in rural areas for cooking is
influenced by availability and its affordability as well as the prevalence of
incidence of poverty among people in a nation. Conversely, Electricity and LPG
are used by few people for cooking purposes because they are not only available
but also not affordable.
The
high cost of installation, operating costs and lack of training on to use
modern cooking stoves significantly contribute to low usage of electricity and
LPG respectively in rural areas of Tanzania.
3.2.
Determinants
of Choices of Energy Sources for Cooking in Rural Areas of Tanzania
This
section sought to identify factors that determine the choices of energy sources
for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania. A Multinomial Logistic Regression Model
was employed in which independent variables were education levels of the
respondent, the age of respondent, a household size of the respondent, the
occupation of respondent and average monthly income of the respondent.
The
dependent variables used in this study include energy source choices having
various categories such as firewood, charcoal, electricity and LPG. Before
estimating the parameters in the model, tests such as an overall test of
relationship and strength of Multinomial Logistic regression were performed.
The results of these tests are presented herein.
3.2.1. Overall
Test of Relationship in the Model
In
this study, the overall relationship between the independent and dependent
variables in the model were tested using model fitting information. The
existence of a relationship between dependent and combination of independent
variables was evaluated based on the statistical significance of the final
model chi-square shown in Table 2.
Model |
-2 Log Likelihood |
Chi-Square |
df |
p-Value |
Intercept only |
354.563 |
|
|
|
Final |
209.125 |
145.438 |
15 |
0.000 |
As it
is observed in Table 2, the results indicate that, the probability of the model
chi-square (145.438) was 0.000, less than the level of significance of 0.05 (P-
Value<0.05) indicating that the null hypothesis that there was no difference
between the model without independent variables and the model with independent
variables was rejected. These results imply that there is an existence of a
relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable used
in this study.
3.2.2. The
Strength of Multinomial Logistic Regression Relationship
The strength of the
relationship between independent and dependent variables used in this model was
established using Pseudo R square measures such as Cox & Snell R Square
value, Nagelkerke R Square value and McFadden R Square value as presented in
Table 3 hereunder.
Step |
Cox & Snell |
Nagelkerke |
McFadden |
|
0.32 |
0.40 |
0.24 |
The results from Table 3 establish
that the values of Cox and Snell, Nagelkerke and McFadden are 0.32, 0.40 and
0.24 respectively; suggesting that between 24%, 32% and 40% of the variations
in the dependent variables is explained by this set of independent variables
used in this model. Alternatively, the results imply that dependent variables
define 40% of the variance in independent variables according to Nagelkerke
R-Square value, 32 % according to Cox and Snell R square value and 24%
according to Mc Fadden R-Square value.
These
Pseudo R square values are large enough to predict the model as MCFADDEN (1984),
and KLINE (2011) suggested that Pseudo R square values should range from 0.20
to 0.40 for a mode to be strong.
3.2.3. Relationship of Independent and
Dependent Variables in the model
The
relationship between each independent variable and dependent variable in the
model was evaluated using the likelihood ratio test. Summary of the likelihood
ratio test results are presented in Table 4.
Effect |
-2 Log Likelihood of Reduced Model |
Chi-Square |
df |
P-value |
Intercept |
213.57 |
04.446 |
3 |
0.200 |
Household size of respondent |
246.42 |
37.295 |
3 |
0.000 |
Occupation of respondent |
213.80 |
04.679 |
3 |
0.100 |
Education level of respondent |
216.64 |
07.512 |
3 |
0.057 |
Age of respondent |
222.87 |
13.740 |
3 |
0.003 |
Average monthly income of respondent |
212.99 |
03.867 |
3 |
0.270 |
In Table 4, the findings indicate
that there is statistically significant relationship between the independent
variables such as household size of respondents (p<0.05), age of the
respondent (p<0.05), education level of
respondent (p<0.01) occupation of the respondent (p≤0.1) energy sources
(independent variables) in rural areas of Tanzania.
3.2.4. Estimation
of Parameters in the Model
The
parameters used in the model on factors determining the choices of energy
sources for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania was estimated using maximum
likelihood method. The estimated coefficient in the model measures estimate
change in the Logit for a one-unit change in the predictors’ variable while
other predictors are kept constant.
It
should be noted that a positive estimated coefficient implies an increase in
the likelihood that a household will choose the alternative energy source.
Likewise, a negative estimated coefficient indicates that there is less
likelihood that a household will change to alternative energy sources. Table 5 present summary results.
Explanatory Variables |
Energy sources for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania |
||||||||
Charcoal |
Firewood |
LPG |
|||||||
β |
S. E |
EXP (β) |
β |
S. E |
EXP (β) |
β |
S. E |
EXP (β) |
|
Household size |
0.18 |
0.80 |
1.20 |
1.31 |
0.76 |
03.69 |
-0.62 |
0.86 |
0.54 |
Occupation |
0.02 |
0.53 |
1.02 |
-0.29 |
0.51 |
00.75 |
0.21 |
0.54 |
1.24 |
Education level |
0.74 |
0.67 |
2.09 |
-0.37 |
0.64 |
01.45 |
1.15 |
0.69 |
3.14 |
Age |
1.31 |
0.87 |
3.72 |
2.31 |
0.85 |
10.04 |
2.00 |
0.93 |
7.39 |
Income |
-1.55 |
0.92 |
0.21 |
-1.66 |
0.86 |
00.19 |
-1.15 |
0.92 |
0.32 |
The results in Table 5 indicate that
the age of heads of households in rural areas of Tanzania has positive
coefficient values for charcoal, firewood and LPG. These study findings imply that
the use of charcoal, firewood, and LPG as a source of energy for cooking over
electricity in rural areas of Tanzania increase as the age of respondents
increased. In this case, the use of charcoal, firewood, and LPG over
electricity for cooking purposes is highly preferred by adult heads of
households when compared with young heads of households in rural areas of
Tanzania.
The
possible explanation could be its affordability, and availability of forest for
firewood collection as well as charcoal making in rural areas of Tanzania.
These findings correspond with NNAJI, UKWUEZE and CHUKWU (2012) who also found
that older household members prefer to use charcoal or firewood than
electricity because of the affordability and its availability in rural areas. Equally,
the affordability and availability of forests for firewood collections
accelerate rural heads of households’ choices to use firewood or charcoal than
electricity for cooking purposes.
The
increased use of traditional sources of energy for cooking purposes over
electricity by rural heads of households in Tanzania in this study is also
supported by DIL BAHADUR ET AL. (2017) who revealed that, the increase in age
of the respondents increases the likelihood of choosing a source of energy such
as firewood compared with another commercial source of energy such as
electricity. In this present study, the findings on the age of heads of households also concur
with the theoretical explanation that the increase in age of rural heads of
households forces stimulate the use firewood or charcoal for cooking purposes
due to availability and affordability when compared electricity in rural areas.
However,
the present study findings contradict with that of MAGANGA ET AL. (2015) which
revealed that an increase in age of the heads of household decreases the
probability of using firewood charcoal for cooking over electricity. The
possible explanation could be the older the heads of the household, the
decrease of their physical strength and thus it becomes difficult to collect or
gather firewood at a far distance from their households. Again, the
contradiction might be because the study by MAGANGA ET AL.(2015) was conducted in urban areas whereby
traditional sources of energy for cooking are not available as results heads of
households are being forced to use an alternative source of energy
This
study also found that, household size has a positive coefficient value for both
charcoal and firewood but negative coefficient value for Liquefied Petroleum
Gas (LPG). As it was theoretically expected, the study findings inform that the
likelihood of using firewood and charcoal for cooking purposes increase as
household size increase in rural areas of Tanzania when compared with
electricity.
The
possible explanation could be that a large household prefers to use firewood or
charcoal since it is comparatively cheap, available as well as its low energy
consumption per unit when compared to LPG or electricity in rural areas of
Tanzania. The other possible reason could be because of a large family size
which implies considerable man powers that are capable of collecting firewood
in the place of their residence are needed. Moreover, the larger the family
size the larger the amount of energy for cooking which has a cost implication.
The
poverty among the majority of the household in rural areas forces them to
switch to firewood and move away from electricity or gases which are more
expensive than firewood. Moreover, the findings of this study correspond with
that of PUNDO and FRASER (2006) who found that it is cheap and convenient to
use firewood for cooking when you have a large family because the cost of
acquiring another source of energy such as electricity, charcoal or gas is
higher.
In contrast, the study findings of
the present study on household size contradict with the study done by OUEDRAOGO
(2006) which showed that small family size prefers to use charcoal as a source
of energy for cooking than the larger family. The reason for the small family
to charcoal could be the choice of energy use as the study used only firewood
and charcoal.
However, it was found that charcoal
was preferred by households having a smaller family than those having a larger
family. Also, the findings show that household size has negative coefficient
value on LPG, implying that the use of LPG as a source of energy for cooking
decrease as household size increases when compared with electricity. Also, the
findings imply that high energy consumption per unit when using LPG for cooking
forces heads of households with a large family to use other sources of energy
with sufficient energy consumption per unit
The findings of the present study
found that occupation of the respondent has a positive coefficient value for
charcoal and LPG and negative coefficient value for firewood. These findings
imply that the use of charcoal or LPG changes with changes in the occupation of
respondents. It is likely that in rural areas of Tanzania, heads of households
engaging in agricultural activities have a low level of income and thus they
rely on firewood as their sources of energy for cooking.
On the one hand, the findings
indicate that heads of households who are employed by the government prefer
much to use modern sources of energy such as electricity. On the other hand, employed heads of
households have higher earnings which help to procure modern and sustainable
sources of energy while heads of households who engage with farming activities
continue to use traditional sources of energy.
Furthermore, the findings of the
present study align with VIJAY and ADILI (2011) who found that self-employed
heads of households dealing with farming and livestock keeping activities use
traditional energy sources such as firewood and crop residue in Njombe rural
areas because of having low and unstable sources of income. Consistently, the findings of the present
study concur with that of Adeyemi and ADERELEYE (2016) which disclosed that
rural households engaging with farming activities use traditional source of
energy while those working in employment sectors uses modern, clean and
efficient source of energy for cooking.
In the present study, the findings regarding
the education level of heads of households show a positive coefficient value
for both charcoal and LPG but negative coefficient value for firewood. The
findings imply that the use of firewood as a source of energy for cooking over
electricity in rural areas of Tanzania decrease as the level of education
increase.
The results imply that the use of
charcoal or LPG as sources of energy for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania
increase as education level also increases. The reason could be that educated
people are aware of the impact of traditional sources of energy such as
firewood on the environment. Another reason is that educated rural households
opt to use clean and sustainable sources of energy such as electricity or
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) for environmental reasons.
It is found that educated heads of
households are less likely to engage in using a traditional source of energy in
such a way that reduces the tendencies of environmental degradation through
deforestation in the process of searching for firewood. The findings are in
line with JOHANNA and LEONARD (2017) who found that households with the highest
level of education are more likely to use clean fuels as their main cooking
fuels than households without primary education.
The results also comply with ADEYEMI
and ADERELEYE (2016) who revealed that if all factors are held constant, heads
of households having more education are likely to switch to modern sources of
energy. The findings also conform to theoretical assumption that household
having more education usually demand for modern sources of energy such as
electricity.
Regarding the average monthly
income, the study findings show negative coefficient values for charcoal,
firewood, and LPG. The findings indicate that the used charcoal, LPG, and
firewood for cooking over electricity in rural areas of Tanzania decrease as
the average monthly income of heads of households increase.
The findings imply that heads of
households in rural areas of Tanzania shift from traditional and unsustainable
sources of energy to modern, clean and sustainable sources of energy as their
level of income increase. Those in rural areas with a higher level of income
assume that firewood is a source of energy for the poor, and thus they engage
in using another source of energy.
It was found that the findings
support the energy ladder theory which states that an individual will shift
from traditional, unclean sources of energy for cooking to modern, clean and
sustainable sources of energy as the level of income increase. The findings on
income correspond with NYEMBE (2011) who found that people with low level of
income prefer to use traditional sources of energy because apart from being
available, they are affordable.
The study findings further concur
with OLUGBIRE ET AL. (2016) and STEPHEN (2011) who substantiated that, poor
heads of households are the main user of firewood compared with another source
of energy, while rich heads of household switches from dirty to clean source of
energy such as electricity or gas. The decrease in use of traditional sources
of energy for cooking purposes also supports the existing national environmental
policy which discourages cutting trees to get charcoal as it leads to
detrimental effects to the environment including soil erosion and environmental
pollution.
However, the current findings
contradict with MEKONEN and KOHLIN (2013) who found that use of charcoal for
cooking among people in rural areas decrease as their level of income increase.
The reason might be the use of only two types of energy sources namely firewood
and charcoal. In her study, charcoal was considered cleaner than firewood because
it cannot produce smokes and also leaves the cooking pot clean after use.
Additionally, the decrease of LPG
use over electricity based on the level of income increases to the rural
household in Tanzania is attributed by shortage gases cylinder in rural areas
and lack of training on how to use these gases. The findings of this study also
report that lack of training and un-availability of cooking gases in shops are
among of the factors for low usage of LPG for cooking in rural areas of
Tanzania.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study concludes that, apart
from rural household income, other factors such as education level, age,
occupation and household family size determine the choices of energy sources
for cooking in rural areas of Tanzania. Therefore, instead of striving in
improving only the income of people in rural areas of Tanzania, other
intervention such as family planning, reforestation programmers and promotion
of the use of modern cooking stoves should be done to ensure provision of sustainable
energy sources in rural areas of Tanzania.
However this study was confronted
with several limitations. Firstly, this study employed cross sectional survey
design which allows collection of data once. Future research using longitudinal
survey design where by data can be collected for a long time and thus enhance
reliability and power of generalization of study findings. Secondly, the
current study covered energy sources for cooking purposes at household level.
Future study should cover the energy
sources for production in small and medium enterprises Limited or large
manufacturing companies. Lastly the
study employed only quantitative approaches in its analysis. In order to
enhance validity and reliability of study findings, future studies should
employ both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
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