APPLIED KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL DESIGN FIRMS: CASE STUDY
Christian Donin
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Brazil
E-mail: donin@unisc.br
Eduardo Rizzatti
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Brazil
E-mail:
edu_rizzatti@yahoo.com.br
Karin Geiger
CD Engenharia LTDA, Brazil
E-mail: karin@cdonin.com.br
Tatiane Sartori
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Brazil
E-mail: tatianesartori@yahoo.com.br
Submission: 04/03/2016
Revision: 17/03/2016
Accept: 24/03/2016
ABSTRACT
Knowledge is the new strategic imperative of
organizations. The ability to manage knowledge is a crucial part of any
organizations operational processes. The creation and diffusion of knowledge
have become ever more important factors in competitiveness. This paper
investigates the Knowledge Management and flow information and in small design
firms. It is divided into three main parts. The first part of this paper
describes the importance of Knowledge Management for organizations are
described together with responsibilities needed to ensure successful Knowledge
Management implementations and the Spiral of Organizational Knowledge Creation
conception. The second part approaches literature available about process and
organizational structure and information flow related to Brazilian design
firms. Finally, this paper presents a case study of small design office of
Civil Engineering identifying
organizational process, verifying the types of communication practices and
identifying the types of dynamic process of The Spiral of Organizational
Knowledge Creation, KM strategy and dynamic through Knowledge Transfer.
Keywords:
knowledge management, organizational process, information flow, design
firms
1. INTRODUCTION
There is no universally accepted
definition of Knowledge Management, but there are numerous definitions. Putting
it concise, it is the process through which organizations generate value from
their intellectual and knowledge based assets. Knowledge management starts with
data, a mere collection of data is not information. It is needed context and
understanding to transform a data to information, knowledge and wisdom.
Information constitutes a set of meaningful data, which is the result of data
transformation into something that can be understood either through a specific
context (NODARI et al. 2015). It is important to note the differences between
the two types of knowledge as defined at Spiral of organizational knowledge
creation.
2. THE SPIRAL OF
ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE CREATION
Theory defined two types of
knowledge: tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is hard to
formalize and communicate. Explicit knowledge is transmittable in formal and
systematic language. Knowledge can be explicit, which lends itself to transfer
strategies such as formal desk manuals, procedures, and other codified
processes. Knowledge can also be tacit, which lends itself to transfer
strategies such as mentoring, coaching, communities of practice and the like.
Explicit knowledge is more easily quantified and qualified, and can thus be
more readily captured. Tacit knowledge, however, involves soft skills, personal
characteristics, development of cooperative partnerships, and subjective
situational judgments. As this type of knowledge is more intuitive in nature
and derived from experience, it is less readily distilled and captured into
orderly process structures. Although, tacit knowledge (unstructured) must be
combined with explicit knowledge (structured) for retaining and developing
documents and best practice.
The words explicit and tacit can be
misleading because they imply that they are exclusive. However, according to
Omotayo (2015) explicit knowledge is ‘‘grounded’’ in tacit knowledge and is
created by externalization (visualization, articulation, or codification) of
tacit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is the part of tacit knowledge that can be
expressed verbally and does not represent the entire body of knowledge. This
process is the key to organizational knowledge creation. This interaction
between them is called four modes of knowledge conversion: Socialization,
Externalization, Combination, and Internalization:
Figure
1. Spiral of Organizational Knowledge Creation.
(a) Socialization is a process of
creating common tacit knowledge through shared experiences at the same time,
thereby creating common unarticulated beliefs or embodied skills, from
individual tacit knowledge to group tacit knowledge. (b) Externalization (from
tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge) is a process of combined tacit knowledge
and explicit knowledge e.g. creating a new product. (c)Combination (from
separate explicit knowledge to systemic explicit knowledge) is a process of
assembling new and existing explicit knowledge into a systemic knowledge, such
as a set of specifications for a prototype of a new product. (d) Internalization
is a process of articulating explicit knowledge into tacit, operational
knowledge such as know-how. Explicit knowledge documented into text. In order
to apply the Spiral of Organizational Knowledge Creation.
Summarizing and placing this concept
into process, organizational knowledge starts at the individual level with
thoughts or understanding (internalization). It moves upwards through
socialization, where individuals dialogue with team. The ideas are articulated
(externalization) and become more widespread through diffusion of explicit
knowledge (combination). As knowledge moves up the spiral knowledge is more
widely spread and the spiral gets wider. In another hand, it happens when
individuals access organizational knowledge, they apply it and internalize new
knowledge, thus setting the stage for an enhanced piece of knowledge to work
its up the spiral.
In order to approach small design
firms about Knowledge Management (KM) based on the Spiral of Organizational
Knowledge Creation, the organizational process needs to be clarified. According
to Bolisani, Scarso and Zieba (2015) KM is often considered to be a systematic
and organized efforts to find, organize and make company's intellectual capital
available. The intentional nature of KM is often associated with the notion of
KM strategy: Emergent and Deliberate Knowledge Management.
Deliberate and planned KM approach
where practices, tools and methods of managing knowledge are linked to the
general static orientation of the company, are deliberately designed at a top
management level, KM goals are based on a rational analysis of company’s needs,
objective and resources and are later implemented and spread across the company
with deliberate efforts and investment.
Emergent KM approach where practices,
tools and methods of managing knowledge originate from the daily practice and
learning processes of company’s employees develop their own methods of
learning, storing, retrieving and sharing knowledge in relation to their actual
needs and practical problems to solve. The methods and tools that prove to be
effective, useful and/or compatible with the daily business practice are later
development and become established practice, and later can be recognized as the
KM approach of company.
Therefore, in order to add value
process through reuse and innovation, it required to understand the KM strategy
that involves resources (organization’s people, technology, processes) and
organizational structure.
3. THE ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS AND INFORMATION FLOW AND STORING
THE INFORMATION
This chapter approaches literature
available about process and organizational structure and information flow
related to Brazilian design firms. Although KM have become the focus of
extensive investigation, not many studies applied to Brazilian design
firms. Many studies breaks project into
operations: inputs (information), process, and outputs (qualified information).
Jobim (1999) showed in details the way
the data and the production of information / knowledge within the design office
routine. It presents below scheme of organizational process and definition of
each step:
Figure 2. Organization Process in design firms.
Source: adapted from
Jobim (1999).
a) Planning
expresses the objectives and requirements of the project in terms of project
scope, project schedule, resource requirement, project cost estimation. b)
Inputs are those data use in the project to implement it. c) Execution /
Development. d) Outputs. Outputs are the direct immediate term results
associated with a project.
Projects will produce two kinds of
outputs. One kind are the intangible things the project intends to produce:
e.g., a training program to develop or refresh job skills. The other kinds of
outputs are tangible plans, measurements, tracking processes and status reports
that pertain to planning, managing and closing the project itself. e) Critical
Path Method.
The essential technique for using
Critical Path Method is to construct a model of the project that includes: a
list of all activities required to complete the project, prioritize activities
for the effective management and to shorten the planned critical path of a
project. Critical path is the sequence of activities that add up to the longest
overall duration. It is the shortest time possible to complete the project. Any
delay of an activity on the critical path directly impacts the planned project
completion date (there is no float on the critical path).
A project can have several,
parallel, near critical paths. An additional parallel path through the network
with the total durations shorter than the critical path is called a
sub-critical or non-critical path.
After it defined the information
tack, here it is presented the main communication practices. Muszynska (2015)
described types of communication practices included: a) in person, face-to-face
communication, b) e-mail – used mostly for record-keeping and follow-up
potential, the importance of the matter, getting other people involved, sending
Internet links or files, and sending/receiving background information; c) phone
calls; d) instant messaging; e) database – for sharing blueprints.
Sousa (2010) observed the same
communication practices (except texting message/ instant messaging) in
Brazilian architectures offices. According the author storing the information
that are captured or shared through: forms, books, manuals and blueprints
(writing information); digital files, e-mails (digital information). She
divided in formal and informal communication. The formal communication uses
structured processes following standards.
Sousa (2010) mentioned that,
although informal communication are less emphasized in project management
processes often contribute decisively to the success of the process. In most organizations, the bulk of information
is likely to be in relatively unstructured formats. These can be in the form of
typical business or office documents such as reports, memos, spreadsheets or
emails. These documents normally contain valuable information but they are not
easily searched and found. For a Knowledge Management system to be effective,
it must provide for search engines that can deal with such unstructured
information.
Based on Tribelsky and Sacks (2010
b) main options for storing the information in design firm during the dynamic process
depends on: a) an information package is
a view in a drawing, a text document, worksheet or data table, a page of
calculations, etc., whether on a printed page or in a computer file.
Information packages are the basic units that are transferred between design
project team members. b) an information item is a single piece of information.
It may be textual (a label or
dimension on a drawing, a clauses in a specification) or graphic (a line, arc
or hatching in a drawing). An information package therefore represents a set of
information items. c) an information object is a distinct component of a
building or facility with technical and engineering attributes and
characteristics.
Objects are defined as having form,
function and behavior, such as ceilings, windows, pipes, walls, beams, etc. d)
an information attribute is a technical, engineering or management attribute of
an information object such as its dimensions, material type, supplier name etc.
The value of an information attribute may be displayed in any number of
information packages. Tribelsky and Sacks (2010b) provide a set of measures and
indexes designed to assist in quantifying information flow during the design
process. Data collection are based on information transactions registered in
the journal logs of the project intranet software and on the outcomes of the
process analyses.
Controlling data without software is
unfeasible, and do it by using software is not common because a low number of
companies use it. Building Information Modelling (BIM) is well-known, but its
use is quite limited in Brazil. Souza and Amorim (2009) developed a research
about using of BIM in Brazilian architectural offices, total thirteen offices
was selected and they considered a representative sample of the total offices
that uses this technology in Brazil.
The forefront of implementing the
BIM systems in the early 2000s and the transition from CAD to BIM requires a
number of adjustments. The barriers for adopting: time for implementation, cost
of software and investments in hardware to support the software, training. Cost
as an issue, not just in Brazil, according to Ogbeide (2010) as always the
financial aspect is an obstacle when it comes to new innovations, BIM tools are
not different in this sense. Since about 70% of the design firms are small
scale companies they will have problem finding funds to finance BIM technology
and implementing BIM in design phase.
Permonian and Marques Neto (2015)
and Stehling (2012) observed that Auto Cad Software is used in all offices in
their studies. They indicates that, the use of software that can be able to
connect with BIM files is a key technology for the projects as ArchiCad, Revit,
Microstation, Tekla Structures, Smartplant3D, Proengeneer, Inventor, AutoCad,
Naviwork, Autoplant, 3D max, Civil 3d, Solidworks, Sketchup, Vectorworks,
CypeCad, TQS. Permonian and Marques Neto (2015) concluded that 33% starting use
BIM, however just 11% development the design on it. Most companies use the BIM
only for 3D project view. Stehling (2012) observed that the BIM concept is
associated with the simple use of software, excluding its use for the project
management process.
There is a study showing correlation
between characteristics of information flow including design team members and the
degree of success achieved in the detailed design phase of civil engineering
projects. The information flows were characterized in terms of measures drawn
from the concepts of lean thinking, such as flow bottlenecks, rework, large
batches and cycle time, which were monitored and computed analytically using a
set of information flow indices.
The degree of success was measured
in terms of the effectiveness of the design documents that were produced, the
projects' success or failure in meeting targets of budget, schedule and client
expectations, and supplemented by subjective assessments collected in
interviews with key personnel from all the projects. The results show a direct
empirical relationship between the objective measures of information flow and the
measures of the effectiveness of design documents.
Stable information flow with lower
occurrence of flow interruption phenomena correlated reasonably well with
higher quality design documents. Similarly, the degree to which projects vary
in terms of meeting budget and schedule targets appears to correlate with the
frequency of occurrence of phenomena that indicate disruption of smooth
information flows (TRIBELSKY; SACKS, 2010a).
Therefore, it is concluded from
Tribelsky and Sacks study based on the Spiral of Organizational Knowledge
Creation that the project's success level is positively related to
documentation created by it, thus as more like Internalization, more successful
will be the project.
Firms have been looking for
Internalization, proving it, according to Tribelsky and Sacks (2010a), it is
growing number of engaged offices in quality programs, that requires structured
process with documentation, however it is increasing the number of research
showing that there are few offices successfully apply the quality program
methodology. Most offices have non-systematic process management; the lack of
participation of engineers in the design stage; the lack of evaluation of
designers.
Inefficient flows of information
result in reworking follows wherever design has proceeded on basis of outdated
versions of other designers' drawings because newer information was not
forthcoming and overall project durations are extended and increasing costs.
Unfortunately, the flow of information in dispersed design teams is not well
understood, therefore it is frequently not managed well. Understanding the
process by with information flows between project participants is essential to
improvement of design management (TRIBELSKY; SACKS, 2010a).
There is consensus that the
communications management has the main problems of project management of
Engineering and Architecture design firms. Most offices do not have any
knowledge of the techniques and good project management practices. (COSTA JR. 2014).
Scherer, L. J.; Kirsten, T. ;
Santos, A. (2015) the managers of
projects identified that communication is not the strong point of the
organization, recognized failures due to problems in communication and they
present concerns with collect and storage information. According to Lopes et al
(2002) lack communication and inadequate registration information or even total
absence are common practices in design firms. There are documents with recorded
information; generally, required files by customer and additional designers. In
addition, authors affirm that the information flow in their case study reflects
the usual company process in most Architecture Firms in Brazil.
Model is widely based on the
professional experience. Based on it, small design process is a process of
assembling new and existing explicit knowledge, it result in new
product/design, developed solution for each specific project. Therefore, even
Internalization process presents best result; Combination describes the most
dynamic process in design firms.
4. APPLIED KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT : CASE STUDY
In order to applied knowledge
management on small design office of Civil Engineering as case study. This
office develops just one complementary modality of design. The methodology is
based on theory presented in this paper. Observing Jobim (1999) scheme of
organizational process, looked for adapting for study case company in order to
identify the trajectory information to knowledge.
Firstly, verify the types of
communication practices on office case study routine base on Muszynska (2015).
Later, considering Sousa (2010), communication was divided in formal or
informal. Identifying the types of dynamic process of The Spiral of
Organizational Knowledge Creation, KM strategy and dynamic through Knowledge
Transfer. Finally, it was selected 10 clients/design offices that working as
partner on projects, in order to verifying BIM use dissemination.
After created an organization
process scheme (Figure 2), the following communication practices has been
identified, the most used to least used: phone calls, e-mail, face-to-face
communication, database and instant messaging.
Instant messaging is still less often, but it has been increased during
last two years. In order to compare, six in ten clients send instant messaging
in 2015; one in ten clients send instant messaging in 2008.
Table below presents evaluation
procedures of case study office as Formal and Informal. Therefore, looking for
clarifying if the procedure is formal or informal, it was defined as informal
procedure: unformatted note, subjective and verbal. Formatted document as formal.
Table 1. Classification of Information flow about company's procedures.
Procedure |
Input |
Output |
Client demand |
Client (informal) |
Unformatted note (informal) |
Service Proposal /contract |
Adm.
(informal) |
Contract (formal) |
Data collection |
Blueprint and additional
documents (formal) |
Blueprint and additional documents (formal) |
Project |
Blueprint (formal) Technical notes
(informal) |
Blueprints and additional documents (formal) |
Based on presented studies, theory
of Knowledge Management and a Civil Engineering small design firm as case
study. It is developed Flowchart of Information Flows in design process with
identification of dynamic process. The process starts with first contact with
client by phone for scheduling a meeting.
Meeting is a gathering of firm agent
and client that has been scheduled for the purpose of client presents his/her demand. It is a short
meeting. This step is classified of Socialization, involving just tacit knoledge
and just tacit knoledge, in the both sides. If the demand is interesting for
the office the next step is collecting all needed information for preparing a
budget.
If the office is not interested in
development the project, the demand is rejected. Construction projects
involving diferent modalities of designs. This office develops just one
modality of design, when it is offered a demand out of office scope, the office
indicates others professionals.
These professionals often work
together on different projects, so different professionals synergistically
combine their efforts so that their final product are delivered in a more efficient and effective
manner than when each area works independently from the other. Each
professional/office is expert in a particular modality. Defining if the demand
is in the scope or not is of articulating explicit knowledge into tacit
knowledge, therefore it is an Internalization. Documents as a contract is
created during this process.
The following steps, it was
approached above Planning, Inputs, Development Project, next step is Outputs.
Outputs are all results associated with a project, including the final design.
Finally, the project is approved or not. If it is approved, the process is
complete. When the project is not approved or there is a request for change,
next step is Critical Path Analysis followed by Planning.
Critical Path Analysis is based on
Critical Path Method, it was explained previously in this paper. This step is
Combination, a process of assembling new and existing explicit knowledge into a
systemic knowledge, resulting in a personalized product/design.
Figure 3: Information Flows in design process in the Civil Engineering office
Therefore, each project involve
three types of dynamic process of The Spiral of Organizational Knowledge
Creation: Socialization, Internalization, Combination. Also, it must to
considering during the organizational knowledge that individuals access
organizational knowledge, they apply it and internalize new knowledge, thus
contributing to creating new knowledge as spiral. Firms have been looking for
Internalization during all their activities that requires structured process
with documentation.
Finally, it is expected capturing
the value of the dynamic through knowledge transfer. Considering Civil
Engineering small design firm, the learned process in each step of project: a)
Define the Project. This step is the initial step wherein the process and team.
Initial engagement from all key players should be established in advance of the
project. Select staff with specific expertise or knowledge of the project. This
phase is complete with success for case study office considering assembling the
team. b) Collect. The collection process involves the capture of information
through structured and unstructured processes such as project critiques,
written forms, and meetings. Case study company complete this step partially,
it collects needed information for project execution, however there are no
standard check-list with all documents, so capturing of information through
unstructured processes. c) Verify. This process serves to verify the accuracy
and applicability of activities submitted. Domain or subject matter experts may
be involved in coordinating and conducting reviews (Critical Path Analysis).
Depending of outputs study case company executes this step through unformatted
note.
Note that in the case study's office
tries to assemble same group of professionals for projects, they realized that
involve the same professionals it can help optimize project's performance.
However, this is common this company combines different teams during period
project time. The relationships and varying input from architects, engineering
consultants, contractors. Also, they did not collect information after the end
of project, therefore it is a gap in knowledge transfer. It is not an
exception, common practice in this field based one following authors.
Team members should meet regularly
to capture lessons learned, it is also helpful to bring together the project
team and the end of or during a project (WHITE; COHAN, 2016). The lessons
learned in knowledge generated during the design review process may be stored
in a portable document file format, identifying effective management practices
(DESHPANDEA et al 2014).
Kamara et al. (2002) emphasized
problems with post-project reviews that aim to capture lessons learned. It is a
highly desirable activity but often does not occur for a number of reasons.
Construction projects are of a temporary nature often involving
multi-disciplinary and virtual teams. If they occur, lessons learned take place
after the project completion when project participants have transferred to new
projects and, because of the project duration, the time lag between a lesson
being learned and recorded is lengthy and thus may be lacking in detail. There
is a problem noted on this case study related to design process. Design process often change because new
requirements are added, or scheduled tasks have failed and it is needed to be
repeated or replaced with complex procedures.
Software with controlling data or
able to make connection with it, it is helpful tool for creating conditions for
development formal documents and post-project evaluation. As BIM is the
well-known software and collecting data is a gap in this study case, in order
to verifying BIM use dissemination it was selected 10 clients/design offices
that working as partner on projects. Zero in ten use BIM for the project
management process. Ten in ten use Auto Cad Software and a least one of softwares that can be able
to connect with BIM (as ArchiCad, Revit, Microstation, Tekla Structures,
Smartplant3D, Proengeneer, Inventor, Naviwork, Autoplant, 3D max, Civil 3d, Solidworks,
Sketchup, Vectorworks, Cypecad, TQS). Sketchup is well know. The study case
result about this topic is not an exception, similar result as Permonian and
Marques Neto (2015) and Stehling (2012).
In mind Bolisani, Scarso and Zieba
(2015) concept, company case study uses Emergent KM strategy. It approaches
appears to be more flexible, but this flexibility may be not designed
intentionally. Planning horizon short-term, scope action is local problems,
medium level of familiarity with KM language. KM solutions survive of they are
flexible and can change over time with company’s needs.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper presents the trajectory
information to knowledge in design process in the Civil Engineering office.
About types of communication practices, nowadays instant messaging take a place
on office routine. Undocumented procedures, lack communication resulting in
gaps on capturing and transferring project knowledge. Problems with
post-project reviews aim to capture lessons learned. BIM is well known, but use
it is incipient especially in project management process. This case study is
not an exception; most studies identified serious deficiencies in information
flow in Brazilian design firms.
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